![]() The size of CSDs can vary by the skeletal region involved and the state of soft tissue surrounding it ( Nauth et al., 2011 Schemitsch, 2017). However, a large bone defect, referred to as a critical-sized defect (CSD), cannot be healed by the patient’s body (Schroeder and Mosheiff, 2011 Park et al., 2015). We conclude this review with emerging approaches in this field, including the development of gradient scaffolds, four-dimensional (4D) printing technology via smart materials, organoids, and cell aggregates/spheroids along with future avenues for related BTE.īone is a resilient tissue with self-healing capacity. We also review in-vitro assays and in-vivo models to track bone regeneration, followed by a discussion of current limitations associated with 3D bioprinting technologies for BTE. Promising state-of-the-art pathways or strategies recently developed for bioprinting bone scaffolds are highlighted, including the incorporation of bioactive ceramics to create composite scaffolds, the use of advanced bioprinting technologies ( e.g., core/shell bioprinting) to form hybrid scaffolds or systems, as well as the rigorous design of scaffolds by taking into account of the influence of such parameters as scaffold pore geometry and porosity. In this review, we briefly present the latest developments and discoveries of CSD treatment by means of bioprinted scaffolds, with a focus on the biomaterials, cells, and growth factors for formulating bioinks and their bioprinting techniques. ![]() However, a key challenge that remains is the fabrication of scaffolds that meet structure, mechanical, and osteoconductive requirements of native bone and support vascularization. To date, a wide range of biomaterials (either natural or synthetic polymers), as well as various cells and growth factors, have been explored for use in scaffold bioprinting. Bioprinting technology allows for incorporation of living cells and/or growth factors into scaffolds aiming to mimic the structure and properties of the native bone. Due to the limitations associated with conventional bone grafts, bone tissue engineering (BTE), based on three-dimensional (3D) bioprinted scaffolds, has emerged as a promising approach for bone reconstitution and treatment. Treating large bone defects, known as critical-sized defects (CSDs), is challenging because they are not spontaneously healed by the patient’s body. 3Department of Anatomy Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada.2Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada.1Division of Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada.
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